The elements of drama began with Greek philosopher Aristotle, who stated in The Poetics, written circa 335 BCE, that each dramatic performance must contain the six key elements of plot, character, thought, otherwise known as theme, diction, today referred to as language, melody, or music-dance, song, or rhythm, plus spectacle. This is history’s first surviving example of dramatic theory.

In contemporary drama education, there is no prescribed or definitive list of the elements of drama. Below is a list of 37 of the most common elements of drama with my own descriptors, gained from 35 years of teaching practice in drama education. I trust this post may be helpful for both drama and theatre arts teachers and their students alike.

37 Elements of Drama

1. Action

Action, or dramatic action, refers to the propelling of the plot from one moment to the next in the drama. This will naturally relate to the structure of the play, as the action moves forward from the exposition to the inciting incident, rising action, one or more crises, the climax, falling action, and then the conclusion. See the “Structure” entry further down this list for more information on how plays are formed…

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2. Atmosphere

Atmosphere, on the other hand, refers to the overall feeling or pervasive emotional environment that surrounds the entire performance or a significant portion of it. It is more enduring than mood, often linked to the broader themes, setting, and tone of the production as a whole. The atmosphere is created through cumulative sensory and emotional cues, such as the design elements (lighting, set, sound, costume) as well as the pacing and style of the performance.

For example, a play set in a gothic, eerie mansion with dim lighting and ominous sound effects will likely create an atmosphere of mystery and suspense, which lingers throughout the play, even as the mood may shift from scene to scene. Atmosphere helps to immerse the audience in the world of the play and gives the drama its distinctive emotional quality.

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3. Audience

Of all the essential elements of drama, the audience must exist for it to be considered a performance – a play without an audience should be considered a rehearsal.

An audience can specifically refer to the engagement actors have with their audience through performance, known as the actor-audience relationship. The exact nature of this relationship can vary depending on the style of the performance.

For example, a performer in a purely naturalistic drama may ignore the audience altogether. They may even have their back facing the audience. While a performer in a realistic drama may be aware of the presence of an audience but not perform directly to them. Conversely, a performer in an epic theatre play may regularly break the fourth wall and interact directly with sections of the audience. Manipulating exactly how a performer relates and engages with the audience in a performance can be both an academic exercise and fun at the same time.

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4. Character

Character is the specific, detailed representation of an individual within the story. A character is a fully realised figure with unique traits, motivations, emotions, and a personal history that influences their behaviour and actions. Characters are given distinctive identities, personalities, and relationships within the plot, and actors bring these elements to life through specific choices in physicality, voice, and emotional expression. Creating a character involves deeply understanding the character’s psychology, relationships, and development throughout the play. Characters tend to evolve and change over the course of the drama, reacting to events and interactions in ways that reflect their unique inner worlds.

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5. Climax

Most dramas will have one or more crises in the development of the plot. A crisis is a key moment of dramatic tension and conflict in the play, usually occurring between two or more characters and having serious implications for the outcome of the plot. The ultimate crisis, or highest peak, is usually called the climax and often (but not always) occurs toward the end of a play. There can also be more than one climax in a drama, although this is uncommon. An anti-climax is also possible.

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6. Conflict

Conflict is one of the key elements of drama. Playwright George Bernard Shaw once said ‘No conflict, no drama’. How right he was! A drama that lacks conflict is normally dull and uninspiring. As a rule, conflict should always be considered an essential ingredient for all dramatic performances.

Conflict can be between two or more characters, or simply one, known as inner conflict. Many Elizabethan soliloquies contain inner conflict. ‘To be or not to be’ is an excellent example. Conflict on stage can be verbal, physical, or non-verbal. Conflict differs from tension in that it is often a fixed and permanent part of the structure of a play embedded in the fabric of the drama, often from the outset, with characters destined to clash with one another.

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7. Contrast

Without the careful use of contrast, performances are boring and lack tension. In simple terms, contrast is a point of difference. An obvious example of contrast is a sad scene followed by a happy scene. But contrast can be created in more subtle and sophisticated ways, such as manipulating the drama to create a change in setting, pace, or time.

The contrast between characters should also be considered. Contrast can be created by changes in language, timing, mood, lighting, energy, relationships, situation, and more. Careful use of contrast as one of the elements of drama in performance can keep an audience actively engaged, throughout.

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8. Convention

A convention is an acting or staging technique. Examples of conventions include the use of a narrator, an aside, a soliloquy, a direct address, the use of placards, songs, etc. Conventions are often associated with performance styles, which in turn are commonly associated with one or more theatre practitioners. Sometimes conventions are linked more generally with the way theatre was performed in a certain era, for example, the conventions of absurdism or Elizabethan theatre.

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9. Dramatic Moment

A moment, or dramatic moment, is self-explanatory. It is a specific moment in the play, usually lasting only a short time, where the action is dramatic in some way. But being dramatic does not always mean loud noises and lots of moving characters. A dramatic moment can be a poignant moment of stillness or silence. Dramatic moments can also occur with only a single actor and even without sets and props, such is the power of drama. The tempo and rhythm of a play often change when a dramatic moment occurs. Tension is often manipulated when creating dramatic moments and the element of contrast is commonly employed.

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10. Energy

Energy is the intensity of a character’s actions in the drama. Many plays contrast one or more high-energy characters with low-energy characters. Energy, therefore, refers to both vivacious and vibrant characters as well as slow, dispirited, or tired characters. Before a character can be portrayed with a certain type of energy, the performer must possess this energy. In general terms, energy can also refer to the intensity of specific performances or the type of show being performed, for example musical theatre.

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11. Emphasis

Emphasis involves giving greater importance to specific moments, ideas, or themes within the performance to enhance their significance. It often deals with how meaning is conveyed to the audience and is typically achieved through deliberate choices in dialogue, movement, or visual symbols.

Emphasis can be created by repeating key lines, using heightened physical or vocal expression, or creating contrasts, such as sudden changes in pace or volume.

For instance, a quiet, slow scene followed by a sudden burst of energy can emphasise a turning point in the plot. By emphasising certain elements, the dramatist or director ensures that the audience removes the intended themes or messages of the performance.

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12. Focus

Focus involves directing the audience’s attention to a specific performance aspect. This could be a character, an action, or stage area. Focus helps clarify a scene’s central point by guiding the audience’s attention toward what is most important at a given moment. Techniques to create focus include using lighting, positioning of actors (such as isolating one character from a group), levels of movement, or the delivery of lines in a distinct way.

For example, in a moment of emotional intensity, the focus might be placed solely on one actor who is experiencing a dramatic shift, with the rest of the ensemble adopting stillness to enhance this. Focus controls the audience’s line of sight and influences their perception of the unfolding drama.

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13. Language

Language in drama refers to the verbal and non-verbal communication used by characters, often through dialogue, monologue, or even silence. It encompasses the style of speech, choice of words, tone, rhythm, and any other vocal qualities used to convey a character’s thoughts, emotions, or social status.

Language also includes how things are said, such as dialect, slang, or formal speech, which can reveal much about the characters and the world they inhabit. Beyond spoken words, language in drama may also involve non-verbal elements such as gestures, facial expressions, and body language, all of which contribute to how meaning is communicated.

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14. Dramatic Metaphor

Metaphor in drama involves a second reference in order to enhance the meaning of the first. For example, “The man is a goose”. The description of the qualities of the first reference of the man is enhanced by knowledge of the second reference, the fact that a goose is considered a silly waterfowl by its looks, big feet, and awkward behaviour.

A literary example of metaphor can be found in Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible, set in the Salem witch trials of 1692-93, but actually about the spread of Communism in 1950s America, which was the time and place of the play’s composition.

Bertolt Brecht employed a similar dramatic metaphor in his work The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui, a play set in 1930s gangster-ridden Chicago that was really about Hitler’s Germany. George Orwell’s Animal Farm was not about animals at all, but Russia and the Soviet Union under Communist Party rule.

Dramatic metaphors, however, should not be confused with the use of symbols. When an object is used as a symbol, it is replaced by the symbolic meaning – for example, the red rose is now replaced by the feeling of love. However, with dramatic metaphor, the second reference enhances this meaning without replacing it.

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15. Mood

Mood refers to the emotional tone or feeling experienced by the characters and conveyed to the audience within a specific moment or scene. It is often temporary and can shift rapidly depending on the events or interactions happening on stage. The mood is created through dialogue, acting choices, lighting, sound, and sometimes music, all working together to evoke particular emotions such as joy, tension, fear, sadness, or excitement.

For example, a scene where characters engage in a heated argument might evoke a mood of anger or hostility. At the same time, a quiet, reflective moment might create a mood of melancholy or contemplation. The mood is closely tied to the emotional response of the characters and the audience and can fluctuate throughout the play.

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16. Movement

Movement is the self-explanatory act of a performer moving in the drama according to the character’s objective, motivation, surrounding circumstances, and interaction with other characters. The physical action of movement often defines character relationships and situations. Certain types of movement can involve walking, running, sliding, falling, etc, stage space needs to be used, including upstage, downstage, stage left, stage right, etc.

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17. Music

Music refers specifically to the use of structured, melodic sounds, whether live or pre-recorded, and typically involves rhythm, melody, harmony, and instrumentation. Music in drama can function to underscore a scene’s emotional resonance, provide thematic motifs, or establish atmosphere. It is often more formalised than sound, with a distinct musical score composed or selected to align with the director’s vision.

For example, a melancholic musical theme might accompany a tragic scene, or an upbeat, lively tune might precede a moment of celebration. Music can also be used diegetically, where it is part of the world of the play and heard by the characters, or non-diegetically, serving as background that the audience hears but the characters do not.

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18. Place

Place refers to the specific, concrete location where a particular scene or moment in the play occurs. It is the immediate physical environment where the action unfolds, such as a kitchen, a forest, or a street corner. Place is often a part of the setting, but it zooms in on the actual physical space represented on stage in any given scene.

For example, while the setting of a play might be New York City in the 1950s, a particular scene might take place in a small café, which is the place of that moment. Place focuses more on the tangible, detailed location that influences how the actors interact with their environment, props, and one another.

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19. Plot

Plot refers to the specific arrangement of events presented in the play. The plot is how the story is structured and delivered to the audience, often involving decisions about what is shown on stage, in what order, and with what emphasis. While the story might be a continuous series of events, the plot selects, organises, and manipulates these events for dramatic effect.

This might include the use of devices such as flashbacks, foreshadowing, or subplots to build tension, develop characters, or explore themes. The plot is the how of the drama — the narrative strategy and structure that gives meaning to the story by controlling the audience’s experience of it.

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20. Posture

Posture is the position in which a character holds their body when standing or sitting. Posture can define a character’s attitude, social status, inner feelings, rank, and more. Posture is similar to a character’s pose or stance.

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21. Relationships

Relationships are also sometimes considered one of the elements of drama. This refers to the interrelationships between characters in a play. Character connections affect the way the plot evolves. These relationships may be friendly, conflicting, romantic, of equal status, or otherwise. Some relationships in a drama may be fixed, while others may be variable and subject to change as the plot evolves.

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22. Rhythm

Rhythm is more commonly a musical term. In drama, rhythm refers to timing and pace. It also means the beat or tempo of the whole performance. As a rule, rhythm should never be the same throughout the drama, regardless of its length. Rhythm can follow the emotional state of one or more characters or the atmosphere of the play at particular moments.

Rhythm is closely linked to movement. An everyday ritual presented on stage, such as getting ready for work in the morning, can involve repetitive and rhythmic actions and gestures. What is the rhythm of the long line of people in the unemployment queue? What is the rhythm of the classroom scene where students are misbehaving with the substitute teacher? How does the rhythm contrast in these two examples?

Rhythm can also have a place in the delivery of dialogue. The most obvious example is the text of Shakespearean dramas delivered using iambic pentameter. But all character dialogue, no matter how informal, should have a particular rhythm attached to it.

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23. Role

Role refers to a performer’s function or part within a drama, often more abstract or archetypal. A role can be understood as a broad representation of a type or category of person, such as “the hero,” “the villain,” or “the mentor.” It defines the actor’s place within the narrative structure and the social or thematic function they are meant to fulfil within the performance. Roles often embody general human behaviours, relationships, or social positions, and can sometimes lack the depth or individuality of a fully fleshed-out character. In educational or improvisational settings, actors may explore different roles without delving into detailed backstories or psychological depth, focusing more on the role’s purpose in advancing the narrative or highlighting themes.

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24. Setting

Setting refers to the overall time and location in which the action of a play takes place. It encompasses not just the physical location but also the narrative’s historical period, social context, and cultural environment. The setting provides the background and framework for the characters and plot, shaping the social norms, values, and conflicts that drive the drama.

For example, a play set in Victorian England will be influenced by that era’s social hierarchy, fashion, and language. The setting can also involve non-physical elements like the time of day, weather, and overall atmosphere, all of which affect the mood and dynamics of the scene. In a more abstract or symbolic play, the setting might be less literal, serving as a metaphorical or thematic space rather than a realistic environment.

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25. Situation

The situation in drama refers to the given circumstances of the dramatic action happening in the play. This is a straightforward concept. What is the setting of the play? What are the circumstances of the given scene, such as an argument, marriage proposal, a betrayal of friendship, medical emergency, school assembly, election campaign? Clearly conveying the situation in the play at any particular time makes the drama coherent for the audience.

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26. Sound

Sound refers to any auditory element used in a performance, which can include natural sounds, mechanical noises, or electronically generated effects. These sounds might replicate real-world noises, such as footsteps, doors creaking, wind blowing, or city traffic, to create a sense of realism and establish the setting. Sound effects may also be abstract or symbolic, helping to enhance dramatic tension, signal a key event, or suggest an emotional undertone.

For instance, a sudden loud noise might signify danger or a shift in mood. In some cases, sound can also function to direct the audience’s focus, signalling transitions between scenes or drawing attention to offstage action. Sound effects are often carefully timed and coordinated with the onstage action to heighten the audience’s sensory experience.

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27. Space

Space is one of the critical elements of drama, referring to the effective use of available space in performance. Space can be both horizontal and vertical. Performers can be upstage or downstage, stage left or stage right. Different levels of space can also be utilised such as sitting, bending over, lying down, crawling, or physically using another level of a stage set.  In order to use space effectively, movement becomes an important factor.

Effective use of space also involves clearly communicating to the audience where the action is taking place. This may include any changes in location that occur in the performance, particularly if little or no sets or props are being used and there is a heavy reliance on the audience’s imagination – otherwise known as implied space in the drama. Sometimes theatre buildings or specific productions can be created using a particular space such as traverse staging, proscenium arch, thrust staging, or arena/in the round.

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28. Spectacle

Historically, the spectacle was one of the obligatory elements of drama outlined by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in The Poetics. Aristotle referred to spectacle elements as costumes, scenery, actor gestures, and the sensory effects of the resonance of the performer’s voice, or sound.

In a contemporary context, spectacle refers to all the visual elements of a play – those incorporating theatre stagecraft and production areas. These can include stage sets, lighting, costumes, props, make-up, special effects, and multimedia. Spectacle in contemporary theatre is probably more important today than it was centuries ago due to the advent of technology and its integration into all levels of the theatre.

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29. Story

The story refers to the broader sequence of events and actions that occur in the world of the play, encompassing everything that happens, both on and off stage, including backstory, subplots, and any events implied but not directly shown. The story is a comprehensive, chronological account of all significant events, from the earliest actions or situations that set the narrative in motion to the ultimate resolution of the characters’ journeys. It is essentially the what of the drama — the collection of all events, characters, and experiences, regardless of how they are revealed or arranged in the performance.

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30. Structure

Structure, or dramatic structure, refers to the backbone of a drama. A typical structure of a play involves the exposition and initial action at the beginning, an inciting incident where the conflict and point of attack within the play are revealed, rising action involving conflict and one or more crises, and the ultimate crisis known as the climax, then the falling action towards the latter part of the drama leading to the conclusion, which is not always a happy resolution. The French word denouement is often used to define a play’s ending. Translated into English, denouement means the untying or unravelling of the knot, in other words, the untying of all the complexities of the plot into a suitable conclusion.

Non-typical structures involve cyclical plots that end where they began, evident in some absurdist plays. The simple fact that Shakespeare and his contemporaries always wrote plays in a five-act format is also an example of structure. In later years, a three-act format was common, further reduced to two acts. Today, short one-act plays consisting of numerous brief scenes are a common dramatic structure in contemporary theatre.

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31. Symbol

The symbol is one of the principal elements of drama. The use of symbols in dramatic performance can be one of the simplest and also most complicated of all techniques. Symbolism implies a greater meaning than the literal suggestion. Props are the easiest to work with because objects in everyday life often become symbols in society. Symbols can also be found in the use of colour. We often symbolise purple with royalty, red with anger or desire, black with evil and darkness, or white with purity and innocence.

Colour association can be worthwhile symbols with costumes, sets, and props. But the most sophisticated use of symbols occurs with the application of gesture and movement. A particular gesture performed by a character early in performance can be repeated in another context and have a very different meaning. Used only once, a gesture can also be a powerful symbol. All of these examples can be combined for an even better effect.

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32. Tension

Tension is sometimes referred to as dramatic tension and usually lies with the development of suspense. As the audience anticipates certain outcomes in the plot, the tension builds. Tension differs from conflict in that it is usually a transient occurrence that may take place multiple times in a single play. An obvious example of rising tension occurs in a mystery play or whodunit. In these instances, the audience is left in a constant state of suspense trying to determine the real culprit. The development of tension therefore usually parallels the advancement of the plot, leading to a crisis or climax. Tension is closely linked with the element of timing.

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33. Text

The text refers to the written script of the play, which includes all the dialogue, stage directions, and any other written material that serves as the blueprint for the performance. The text is a fixed literary element and includes what is said and how and when things happen, as dictated by the playwright. The text provides the structure and framework of the performance, detailing character interactions, plot progression, and thematic elements. It is the foundation from which the performance is built, though how the text is interpreted can vary significantly in performance, depending on the director’s vision, the actors’ interpretation, and other creative decisions.

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34. Theme

Theme refers to what a play is about, often the central idea, while what specifically happens on stage is the plot. Through the dramatic action of the plot, the deeper meaning of the play is revealed. A single play can consist of multiple themes. Extracting a theme from a play involves viewing it with a wider lens and seeing the bigger picture. Is the play about a group of friends from different cultures really about racism? Examples of themes in plays are power, revenge, mateship, love, greed, nature, good versus evil, coming of age, family, isolation, redemption, injustice, etc.

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35. Time

The notion of time is one of the indispensable elements of drama in most performances. In period drama, time can be as broad as a particular era, such as the 1880s. Other dramas loosely convey a modern or contemporary portrayal of time. Some plays contain a specific time that must be conveyed to the audience. These may involve the season of the year, month, day, or even hour. More generic use of time involves the use of the future, although this can also be specific by stating the actual year.

Time can also refer to how long the drama takes to perform. This can be of particular importance in naturalistic dramas where the length of stage time in a play may equal real-time in the theatre. Flash forwards, flashbacks, and other disjointed time sequences in a drama can also refer to changes in time. Alternatively, plays can deliberately appear timeless within the world of the play. Some absurdist dramas deliberately follow this structure.

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36. Timing

Timing in performance refers to the dramatic timing of movements and gestures. We often take our movements for granted in everyday life, but when performing, the use of our bodies must be carefully considered and controlled. Timing can be manipulated to demonstrate authentic, stylised, or non-realistic movements and gestures. The timing of movements of a tired old man will differ from those of an energetic young schoolboy. Similarly, the gestures of a tyrannical dictator will differ from the suppressed people living under his regime. Rhythm, pace, and movement are particularly affected by timing in drama.

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37. Voice

As one of the elements of drama, voice is critical to most performances. A drama without the use of voice is considered a movement piece or a mime. While some would place the voice in the category of a performer’s expressive skills, it is nevertheless an element essential to nearly every drama. Vocal variety can be achieved via the use of projection, pitch, tone, rate, emphasis, diction, rhythm, pause, intonation,  tempo, subtext, and even silence.